Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Food and Beverage System Review: Current Occurrence Data, Detection Challenges, and Implications for Consumer Exposure

AbstractMicroplastics (MPs, <5 mm) and nanoplastics (NPs, <1 µm) are now documented as ubiquitous emerging contaminants throughout the global food and beverage supply chain. Sources include environmental deposition, plastic packaging migration, processing equipment, and consumer handling (e.g., heating in polypropylene bottles). Recent studies report detectable levels in infant formula (typically 4–55 MPs/100 g powder), bottled water (hundreds of thousands of particles per liter, predominantly NPs), dairy milk (~350 MPs/kg), fruit juices/soft drinks (9–183 particles/L), and hot beverages. Traditional laboratory methods for MP/NP analysis—requiring destructive digestion, filtration, and matrix-specific optimization—are labor-intensive, low-throughput, and poorly suited to the complex colloidal emulsions, high turbidity, lipids, and proteins characteristic of many consumer liquids. This review synthesizes peer-reviewed occurrence data (2020–2026), highlights analytical and regulatory gaps, and underscores the urgent need for rapid, non-destructive, multi-matrix detection platforms. While current evidence does not demonstrate acute health risks at detected levels, the high relative exposure in infants and cumulative dietary intake warrant scalable monitoring tools. Ongoing work with the EcoExposure optical assay demonstrates proof-of-concept feasibility even in the most challenging matrices.

Figure 1. Matrix comparison (left to right): Infant formula (complex colloidal emulsion), water (minimal components), juice (dissolved sugars with mild particulates), and soda (carbonated solution with dissolved compounds). Optical properties vary significantly across matrices, influencing scattering, turbidity, and detection behavior.

This paper is also available at: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20020433

1. Introduction The proliferation of plastic use has led to widespread fragmentation into MPs and NPs that enter food and beverages via multiple pathways: atmospheric fallout, agricultural contamination, migration from food-contact materials (packaging, bottles, processing lines), and consumer practices such as heating formula in polypropylene feeding bottles. Infants and children are particularly vulnerable due to higher body-weight-normalized intake and developmental sensitivity. Regulatory programs such as the FDA’s Operation Stork Speed have intensified testing of infant formula for heavy metals, PFAS, pesticides, and other established contaminants, yet MPs and NPs remain outside routine surveillance frameworks. This review examines the state of occurrence data across key consumer liquid matrices, the persistent challenges in detection, and opportunities for next-generation optical technologies.

Occurrence of Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Food and Beverages

Table 1. Representative concentrations of microplastics and nanoplastics in selected liquid food and beverage matrices (recent peer-reviewed studies, 2023–2026)

Matrix	Concentration (mean ± SD or range)	Size/Notes	Dominant Polymers	Key Reference(s)
Infant Formula (powder)	42 ± 27 MPs/100 g (Poland); ~0.5 ± 0.3 MPs/g (China)	6–4,380 µm; fibers & fragments	PA (41%), PE (28%), PP, PET	Kadac-Czapska et al. (2024); Zhang et al. (2023)
Infant Formula (Turkey)	Widespread contamination (exact mean varies by brand)	Fibers & fragments	PA, PE, PP, PET	Şirin et al. (2026)
Dairy Milk	~350 MPs/kg	Mostly <150 µm, fragments	PET, PE, PP	Visentin et al. (2025)
Bottled Water	~240,000 particles/L (90% NPs)	Majority <1 µm (nanoplastics)	PA, PET, PE, PP, PS	Qian et al. (2024)
Bottled vs. Tap Water	Bottled: 3× higher MNPs than treated tap	>50% nanoplastics	PA, PET, PE	Hart et al. (2026)
Soft Drinks / Carbonated Beverages	9–183 particles/L (varies by study/method)	Fragments (54–71%), fibers	PET, PE, PP	Hoseinzadeh et al. (2024); Soudavari et al. (2025); Altunışık et al. (2023)
Fruit Juices & Other Beverages	19–41 MPs/L (juices); higher in hot drinks	Influenced by acidity, heat, packaging	PET, PE	Multiple 2023–2025 studies

Notes on Table 1: Concentrations vary widely due to differences in analytical methods (e.g., microscopy vs. advanced spectroscopic techniques that now capture nanoplastics). Infant formula and dairy products represent some of the most optically complex matrices; bottled water data have increased dramatically since nanoplastics detection improved in 2024.

Infant Formula and Dairy Products Infant formula represents one of the most scrutinized yet optically complex matrices. Multiple independent studies (Poland 2024, Turkey 2025/2026, China 2023) consistently detect MPs in 100% of commercial powdered and ready-to-feed products. Dominant polymers include polyamide (PA), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Particle morphologies are predominantly fibers and fragments. Estimated daily intake for exclusively formula-fed infants is approximately 49 ± 32 MPs per day from powder alone; preparation in PP bottles can add millions of additional particles per liter due to thermal and mechanical stress. Similar patterns appear in liquid dairy milk.

Bottled and Tap Water Bottled water consistently shows the highest reported particle counts when nanoplastics are included. The breakthrough 2024 study using stimulated Raman scattering microscopy reported an average of ~240,000 plastic particles per liter (90% nanoplastics). Bottled water often contains 3× higher nanoplastic loads than treated tap water. Common polymers reflect packaging (PET, PP) and environmental sources. Contrary to the perception of limited data, water has one of the most extensive bodies of research in this field.

Juices, Soft Drinks, and Other Beverages Packaged beverages exhibit moderate but widespread contamination. Soft drinks and carbonated beverages show averages ranging from ~9 to 183 particles/L depending on brand, packaging, and detection method (fragments dominant). Fruit juices and energy drinks fall in similar ranges (19–41 MPs/L). Hot tea/coffee and other beverages often show elevated release due to heat and mechanical stress. Contamination occurs regardless of packaging type (plastic, glass, carton, aluminum), though plastic bottles and carbonation/acidity exacerbate levels. PET and PE are the predominant polymers identified. Annual adult exposure estimates from beverages alone can reach thousands of particles per capita.

2.  Analytical Challenges in Complex Liquid Matrices

Conventional MP/NP workflows rely on oxidative digestion (e.g., H₂O₂, KOH), density separation, filtration, and spectroscopic identification (μ-FTIR, Raman, Py-GC/MS). These methods are highly matrix-dependent: lipid- and protein-rich emulsions (infant formula, milk) cause severe interference, incomplete digestion, particle loss, and background contamination. Nanoplastics (<1 µm) are particularly difficult to isolate and quantify at trace levels. Standardization is lacking, leading to high inter-study variability and under-reporting of NPs.

3. Regulatory and Public Health Context FDA Operation Stork Speed (2025–2026) has delivered the largest-ever infant formula contaminant dataset for heavy metals, PFAS, pesticides, and phthalates, confirming low levels of these analytes. However, MPs/NPs are not yet part of the standard testing panel.

In Asia, regulatory efforts on infant formula safety and emerging contaminants vary by country but show growing momentum. China maintains among the world’s strictest infant formula oversight through the State Administration for Market Regulation (SAMR) and National Medical Products Administration (NMPA), with rigorous registration requirements, manufacturing standards, and rapid response to contamination incidents (e.g., mandatory toxin screening directives in 2026 following recent recalls). India’s Food Safety and Standards Authority (FSSAI) has taken a proactive step specifically on microplastics by launching a dedicated 2024 project titled “Micro- and Nano-Plastics as Emerging Food Contaminants: Establishing Validated Methodologies and Understanding the Prevalence in Different Food Matrices,” focused on method development, prevalence assessment, and informing future regulations. South Korea’s Ministry of Food and Drug Safety (MFDS) continues to update food contact material standards (including rubber products for infants and ochratoxin A limits in formula), while ASEAN nations emphasize plastic pollution reduction and baseline microplastics studies in drinking water and beverages

 While no single Asian initiative fully mirrors the scale or public transparency of the FDA’s Operation Stork Speed, these developments signal increasing recognition of the need for enhanced monitoring of both traditional and emerging contaminants such as microplastics and nanoplastics in infant formula, beverages, and drinking water. EFSA’s literature reviews similarly note data gaps, especially for real-food matrices and nanoplastics, and call for improved methods. While health risk assessments remain inconclusive at current exposure levels, the precautionary principle, combined with infants’ high relative intake, supports expanded monitoring.

4. Conclusion and Outlook

The available literature (2020–2026) confirms that microplastics and nanoplastics are present across virtually all tested food and beverage categories, with infant formula and dairy emulsions representing particularly stringent test cases due to their colloidal complexity. Significant data gaps persist—especially for standardized multi-matrix protocols and routine surveillance—creating both a public health monitoring challenge and an opportunity for innovative detection technologies.

As part of ongoing multi-matrix validation, the EcoExposure optical assay has successfully completed proof-of-concept testing in reconstituted infant formula (one of the most optically demanding real-world liquids), demonstrating clear, reproducible optical distinctions between control and microplastic-spiked samples within ~15 minutes using a standardized dilution + polysaccharide reagent + adaptive optical interaction workflow (see accompanying Technical Note: Multi-Matrix Feasibility of Microplastic-Nanoplastic Optical Assay in Complex Liquid Systems – Infant Formula Example). These findings validate extension beyond clear aqueous systems into everyday consumer liquids.

Work is now underway to expand the EcoExposure platform across additional beverage matrices (milk, juice, soft drinks, and plant-based alternatives), leveraging the same core protocol with app-based dilution correction  This scalable, non-destructive approach directly addresses the limitations of traditional methods and supports growing regulatory and consumer demand for transparent microplastic-nanoplastic monitoring in the food and beverage supply chain—both in the U.S. and across Asian markets.

References

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2. Zhang et al. (2023). [Infant formula packaging contribution study referenced in multiple reviews].

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6. Hart MNJ, et al. (2026). A comparative analysis of micro- and nanoplastics in treated drinking water and bottled water. Science of the Total Environment.

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10. FDA (2026). Operation Stork Speed Press Release & Infant Formula Product Testing Results. https://www.fda.gov/food/infant-formula-homepage/fdas-infant-formula-product-testing-results

11. FSSAI (2024). Project on “Micro- and Nano-Plastics as Emerging Food Contaminants: Establishing Validated Methodologies and Understanding the Prevalence in Different Food Matrices.”

12. SAMR/NMPA (China) updates on infant formula registration and contaminant directives (2025–2026).

13. MFDS (South Korea) Food Code revisions on contaminants and food contact materials (2024–2026).